Scientific Resources

Cyclic voltammetry is an electrochemical technique for measuring the current response of a redox active solution to a linearly cycled potential sweep between two or more set values.

Over the past 10 years, perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have achieved record efficiencies of 25.5% single junction solar cells (as of 20211) and these efficiencies are rising impressively.

Perovskite solar cells have significant stability challenges that must be addressed before they can be considered suitable for large-scale manufacturing.

Cyclic voltammetry is a versatile electrochemical method with a range of different applications. In cyclic voltammetry, each successful forwards and backwards potential sweep produces a 'duck-shaped' plot known as a cyclic voltammogram.

Dynamic light scattering (DLS) is a non-invasive measurement technique used to measure the size of colloids or suspended particles in solution.

A probe station is a specialized tool designed to help conduct precise electrical measurements on small devices or sensitive materials.

Manual colony counting can be tedious and choosing the right colony counter overwhelming. This means it is important for you to understand the benefits and limitations of both automatic and manual colony counters.

To maintain a clean and germ-free environment in a laboratory, it is a good idea to use a laminar flow hood. These systems are useful for various lab procedures involving safe, non-harmful substances.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), sometimes referred to as ‘molecular photocopying’, is a cost-effective method widely used to make copies of DNA in vitro (in a test tube, not a living organism).

Aseptic techniques are essential practices in microbiology and biotechnology. They prevent contamination of samples, equipment, and environments by unwanted microorganisms.

Agar plates are important tools in microbiology used by researchers and scientists to study microorganisms. These plates consist of a petri dish with growth medium made of agar.

The primary goal of sterilization is to get rid of all microorganisms from surfaces and materials. This helps with reducing the risk of contamination and ensuring accurate results.

Aseptic techniques focus on preventing contamination. Sterile techniques ensure the complete elimination of microorganisms. Understanding the difference between these two techniques is important when determining the suitable method.

A perovskite solar cell is a thin film photovoltaic device. In these devices, perovskites absorb sunlight and convert it into electrical energy. Certain perovskites have fundamental properties which make them excellent at this. In some ways, perovskites are even better than the materials used in current solar cells.

Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) are a class of 3D materials that are made up of metals connected by organic linker compounds. Think of metals and organic compounds as building blocks that form structures. These structures come in a variety of shapes and sizes, ranging from 1D to 3D.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are made by connecting metal centers with organic linkers through coordination bonds. The process of creating MOFs plays a crucial role in crystal structure formation. This determines their properties and how well they perform in various applications.

Semiconductors are amongst the smallest and most detailed technologies that exist. One thumb-sized chip can contain billions of transistors – the miniature units used for conducting and switching electrical current.

Organic semiconductors are materials, ranging from small molecules to polymers, that can transport charge. Unlike in conductors, where electrons move freely across the material, organic semiconductors rely on a structure primarily composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

A photodetector is a device that can detect light, or more specifically photons. They are classed as optoelectronic devices like photovoltaic devices. This is because they produce an electronic signal which is proportional to the incident optical input.

Organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) regulate charge flow through an organic semiconductor channel via ion injection from an electrolyte. The most common organic semiconductor used is PEDOT:PSS.

HOMO (Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital) and LUMO (Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital) are fundamental concepts in molecular orbital theory. HOMO and LUMO are known as the "frontier molecular orbitals" because they are the highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals, respectively.

Microfluidics is a ground-breaking field of research focused on the development of fluid-processing technology at the microscale.

The Internet of Things (IoT), also known as the Internet of Everything (IoE), essentially extends the power of the internet beyond computing devices to other devices, processes and environments.

Cyclic voltammetry is a powerful and versatile electrochemical technique. With modern potentiostats and software packages, the method is relatively straight-forward to perform. Despite this apparent simplicity, there are still a number of things that can go wrong, particularly when setting up the electrochemical cell.

Potentiostats are voltage sources that vary their output potential in response to changes in the resistance across the circuit.

This video will show you what you will find inside the electrode polishing kit and how to prepare the kit for cleaning an electrode.

When buying a glove box, it's important that you choose the most suitable system for your specific lab and experiments. The first question that you should be asking yourself when looking for a glove box is what do I need?

The Ossila Glove Box is specifically designed to provide a controlled environment for conducting experiments.

The Ossila Glove Box is designed to be easy to install and maintain, and is suitable for most laboratories. Its small footprint and quick set up also means that it is relatively portable and can be conveniently transferred between labs as required.

Air free techniques are essential for the handling and storage of materials that are unstable when exposed to air. Compounds are defined as unstable if they react with an element in air, often moisture or oxygen.

There are many reasons that a compound would be sensitive to air. The magnitude of an air-sensitive material's reaction to oxygen or moisture can vary dependent on the material properties.

Glove boxes are essential tools for creating controlled atmospheres where you can handle hazardous or air sensitive materials. They can be maintained at positive pressure or negative pressure.

Working safely within an inert laboratory glove box requires care and co-operation from everyone who uses it. For this reason, we recommend outlining a standard operating procedure for your laboratory.

Inert gases are gases which are chemically inactive, so will not undergo chemical reactions with many materials. Inert gases are used for many purposes in a wide range of industries - for example in welding, chemical processing, and as filler gases in light sources.

Argon and nitrogen are both unreactive gases which can be used to create an inert environment within a glove box. Both gases will efficiently displace air within a confined space, are easy to store and will not react with most materials. Therefore, both N2 and Ar can create a glove box environment with very low moisture and oxygen levels.

The Ossila Glove Box uses automatic purging and programmable leak tests making it easy to maintain an inert environment. However, there are a number of steps that you as the glove box user can take to ensure that the inert atmosphere remains intact.

Scientific glove boxes create a sealed environment for work that involves hazardous materials or samples that react with air. The main chamber of such a glove box is generally filled with an inert gas, usually Nitrogen.

The most common cause of glove box leaks is human error, either as a result of not following operating procedures correctly or from accidental damage. In terms of physical damage, the most likely puncture points will be the glove box gloves or the seals around the antechamber doors.

Glove box gloves must be flexible and relatively thin. This allows for movement within the main chamber. The gloves will be the most vulnerable exposure point to air and moisture in your glove box as small holes can easily occur.

The COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health) form is a health and safety document that is written for individual substances.

Fullerenes are a special type, or allotrope, of carbon. They are famous for their hollow, cage-like structures typically made entirely of carbon atoms. These carbon atoms are arranged in patterns of hexagons and pentagons, similar to the pattern on a football or a geodesic dome.

Academic research has examined the Nobel Prize-winning molecule carbon 60 (C60) for various applications, including electronics and catalysis. More recently, its potential use in cosmetics and medicine has gained attention. Tests have been conducted globally to evaluate the effects of carbon 60 on human white blood cell cultures and animals.

Laminar flow is a concept in fluid dynamics which describes the smooth and orderly movement of a fluid (liquid or gas). In laminar flow, fluid particles move in predictable, parallel layers with minimal mixing between layers.

Laminar flow hoods (LFH) are essential tools used in scientific and industrial settings to create a controlled, clean environment for various applications.

In lab environments, both laminar flow hoods and fume hoods operate to provide workspaces with enhanced ventilation and filtration mechanisms.

When working in laboratories, ensuring a safe and clean environment is paramount. Biological Safety Cabinets and Laminar Flow Hoods are two units that can be used to achieve these standards.

Laminar flow hoods and glove boxes both provide controlled environments to be used in laboratory settings, but they have distinct differences in terms of their features and functions within the laboratory.

In settings and applications where a clean environment is essential, laminar flow hoods (LFHs) are a vital tool. Use of a LFH ensures a contamination-free workspace by generating a continuous flow of clean air to remove airborne particles.

Ossila laminar flow hoods are designed for effortless setup, user-friendly operation, and efficient control. This short video guide shows you how to get started with your new equipment.

Ossila laminar flow hoods have been meticulously crafted to provide a contaminant free environment with a compact and efficient design. HEPA filters can be easily installed and replaced. Its benchtop design makes it perfect for bench or small-scale experiments.

Our laminar flow hoods arrive flat-packed. You can assemble this as a vertical or a horizontal laminar flow hood depending on what better suits your research. You can also switch between configurations for different uses or if your needs change.

The acronym HEPA stands for High Efficiency Particulate Air, and these filters boast an exceptional ability to achieve a high standard of particle filtration.

High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters are designed to efficiently remove airborne particles and contaminants, making them indispensable tools in laboratories and cleanroom facilities.

Ultra-Low Particulate Air (ULPA) and High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters are both used in laminar flow hoods to remove particles from incoming air.

Regular and thorough cleaning of your laminar flow hood allows you to reliably conduct your experiments without risk of contamination.

Ultraviolet (UV) sterilization is a disinfecting technique that uses UV light to kill or damage microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi.

Laminar flow must be achieved to guarantee air flow will move in a single direction and ensure optimal performance of the hood. This is needed to achieve the clean air functions listed above.

Spin coating is a common technique for applying thin films to substrates. When a solution of a material and a solvent is spun at high speeds, the centripetal force and the surface tension of the liquid together create an even covering.

Depending on your application and scale of film production, these features can be both beneficial and damaging to your final films. Before investing in a new spin coater, it is crucial to consider the different features and specifications available in the market.

This video demonstrates the static dispense spin coating method using 45 degree angle to avoid touching the edge of the substrate whilst moving the ink.

Spin coating is a widely used and versatile technique for depositing materials onto substrates with accurate and controllable film thicknesses.

To achieve successful thin-film deposition via spin coating, it is crucial to minimize particle contamination. A vertical laminar flow hood can create a contamination free environment.

Video guide on how to assemble the vertical laminar flow hood.

Video guide on how to clean your laminar flow hood.

Dip coating is a simple and effective technique which is commonly used in manufacturing across a wide range of different industries. Within research and development, it has become an important coating method for the fabrication of thin films using a purpose-built dip coater.

Dip coating is one of the most widely-used coating processes in industry and academia for producing thin films. To create a film, the substrate is first lowered into, and then withdrawn from, the solution.

Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) is a simple electrochemical technique. The method is similar to cyclic voltammetry, but rather than linearly cycling over the potential range in both directions, linear sweep voltammetry involves only a single linear sweep from the lower potential limit to the upper potential limit.

When it comes to depositing highly-uniform wet thin films, there are many different solution-processing techniques capable of producing high-quality films at low cost.

This guide will explain what a contact angle is and how it is measured. It will also show you how the Ossila Contact Angle Goniometer works and how to get the best measurement results.

Surface free energy is a measure of the excess energy present at the surface of a material, in comparison to at its bulk. It can be used to describe wetting and adhesion between materials.

UV ozone cleaning is a photo-sensitized oxidation process in which organic molecules in their excited state chemically react with ozone molecules, resulting in the cleaving of bonds and the dissociation of molecules from the surface.

Surface wetting occurs when a droplet spreads out over a surface, such that its contact angle is below 90°. When the droplet spreads out completely, this angle will be 0°, and 'complete wetting' will have occurred.

A contact angle goniometer is an instrument that measures the contact angle of a droplet on a surface. This is a useful, indirect measurement of surface wetting.

In this guide we will use the Ossila Contact Angle software to measure a droplet on an uneven surface.

Video guide to measure the surface tension of a droplet.

Video guide to measure the contact angles of droplets on a surface.

With no external dependencies, the Ossila Syringe Pump is quick and easy to set up and use.

Understanding the fundamentals of syringe pumps is essential for their effective use, maintenance, and troubleshooting.

Syringe pumps, or syringe drivers, are motorised devices that accurately control the movement of a fluid from a syringe by mechanically inserting or retracting the plunger. Syringe pumps feature stepper motors which can accurately move a platform attached to the plunger of a syringe.

Syringe pumps are commonly used in scientific research for precise and controlled delivery of fluids during experiments. They can be utilised for various applications in chemistry, biology, biochemistry, pharmaceuticals, and medical research.

Syringe pumps are electromechanical devices which are designed to convert rotational motion to linear motion. This linear motion can then be used to drive the plunger of a syringe and deliver a precise amount of solution.

The flow rate for a syringe pump refers to the rate at which a fluid is dispensed or withdrawn from a syringe using a syringe pump. It is typically measured in volume per unit of time.

Syringe pumps provide precise control over the movement and delivery of fluids and can be incorporated into a wide range of experimental setups to ensure that any work done is reproducible and accurate.

When auto dispensing solvents, droplets are sometimes dispensed after the syringe pump has stopped. The cause of solution dripping can be due to several factors.

A spectrometer is a device that measures a continuous, non-discrete physical characteristic by first separating it into a spectrum of its constituent components.

Optical spectrometers take light and separate it by wavelength to create a spectra which shows the relative intensity of each. This basic principle has a wide range of applications and uses.

Spectrometers can be designed and built using a number of different optical configurations. Careful choice of components and configuration can avoid aberrations, which result in distorted or blurred spectra.

It can be incredibly frustrating if you encounter a problem while performing UV-Vis spectroscopy, and usually causes an unnecessary delay.

Like any analytical technique, spectrometers are subject to error, including dark noise, stray light, and spectral bandwidth.

When an electron is excited into a higher energy state, either through absorption of a photon or another excitation method, this creates a positively charged space in the lower energy leel known as a "hole."

Solar irradiance varies depending on where you are in the world. This is because of a combination of local atmospheric conditions and geometric considerations.

The purpose of a solar simulator is to recreate the sunlight received on Earth. This is easier said than done as sunlight starts its journey in complex nuclear reactions in the sun's core, and is modified on it's journey to us through interactions with the Earth's atmosphere.

A solar simulator accurately and consistently mimicks solar radiation. The light from a solar simulator aims to reproduce a standard solar spectrum (usually AM1.5G).

Light can be measured either photometrically (only light visible to the human eye is considered) or radiometrically (also considers the energy in the invisible parts of the electromagnetic spectrum).

New developments in solar cell technology have enabled the realisation of flexible solar cells, the applications of which can be utilized in more imaginative ways than ever before.

A solar simulator has several components that help to simulate the solar spectrum uniformly for a defined test area. The most important part of the several components is the light source, however the other components ensure the light source outputs the solar spectrum correctly.

The solar simulator light source is compact, lightweight and can be easily installed in any lab using adjustable height stand provided with it.

This system was designed to be easy to use, and effortless to assemble. This video and subsequent guide will demonstrate how easy setting up your testing lab can be with the Ossila Automated Solar Cell Testing Bundle.

An easy step-by-step guide to assembling the automated solar cell testing kit.

It is important to ensure that your solar simulator is outputting a consistent spectral output. Different solar simulators will have different bulb lifetimes.

Solar simulators must be evaluated according to one of the three standards, and comply with the specifications set out within.

Solar simulators generally attempt to replicate the standard AM1.5G spectrum which has a total integrated irradiance of 1000.4 W/m2 over the wavelength range of 280 nm – 4000 nm.

One main application of solar simulators is to test solar cell devices and modules. To characterise how solar cells will perform in the real world, it is vital that you use a solar source that mimics the suns spectrum well. You could of course use actual sunlight, but this is an uncontrollable variable.

When it comes to testing the performance of solar cells, accurate measurements and reliable equipment are essential. If you are conducting research into PV materials, understanding how to measure and interpret J-V curves is crucial in assessing device performance

Anaylzing key device metrics such as fill factor (FF), open-circuit voltage (V_OC), and power conversion efficiency (PCE), can help you find potential issues with your solar cell devices

Choosing the right light source for your solar simulator is one the most important decisions to make when setting up a PV testing laboratory

A research paper is an academic document that involves analysis, interpretation, and argumentation derived from independent research. Unlike academic essays, research papers tend to be lengthier and more intricate, assessing both writing proficiency and scholarly research abilities. Crafting a research paper entails showcasing a deep understanding of the topic, interacting with diverse sources, and offering an original perspective to the discourse. Our guide will guide you through writing individual sections from abstract to conclusion.

In the world of science, sharing your research findings is significant. Whether you are talking about it in person, putting up a poster, or writing it down, getting the word out is important for moving science forward and getting people talking.

Optical spectroscopy (or UV-Vis spectroscopy) is a versatile and non-invasive technique that can be used to study a wide range of materials.

Spectroscopy can be performed using a range of different light sources. These can typically be categorised as being either monochromatic or broadband.

Jablonski diagrams are the simplest way to the transitions between electronic and vibrational states. The representative energy levels are arranged with energy on the vertical axis and vary horizontally according to energy state multiplicity.

Optical spectroscopy data can be processed faster and more consistently using programming tools such as Python. This is a step-by-step guide of how researchers process multiple spectra that were taken using the Ossila Optical Spectrometer. The code in this guide is designed for the Ossila Optical Spectrometer.

Data can be easily plotted using the following Python code to plot data using Pandas DataFrame.Just copy and paste the code below into your Python virtual environment and start plotting.

Spectroscopy is an invaluable technique used to study the interaction between radiative energy and matter. Different types of radiative energy used in spectroscopy include electrons, neutrons, ions, and acoustic waves.

The history of spectroscopy is a rarely told story, though it is a fascinating one that has profoundly shaped modern science. The research spans three centuries. This history takes us from age-old curiosities over the nature of light, to discoveries about the solar system and chemical elements and their structures.

The Beer-Lambert Law is a fundamental principle in spectroscopy. Optical spectrometers can quantify the absorption of light by a sample. Using the Beer-Lambert law, you can use these absorbance measurements to easily measure and monitor the concentration of different materials within a solution.

Both fluorescence and phosphorescence are types of photoluminescence. Photoluminescence refers to radiative emissions where the absorbance of a photon is followed by the emission of a lower energy photon. The main empirical difference between fluorescence and phosphorescence is the time in between absorbance and the emission of photons.

The blazed diffraction grating is a type of grating that has a "sawtooth" profile. Blazed diffraction gratings will maximise the grating efficiency in one desired diffraction order at a specific wavelength, while other orders are minimised.

This article contains some advice from our researchers that should help you get started taking optical spectroscopy measurements of thin films.

To measure the fluorescence of a thin film, you will need an optical spectrometer, a fixed sample holder and a high energy light source (such as a UV laser or the Ossila UV light source). We also recommend using optical fiber cables between modular elements to reduce the attenuation of your signal.

Optical fibers (or fiber optic cables) are cables which transmit light efficiently along an extremely thin glass (silica) or plastic fiber. Light travels down the cable due to total internal reflection.

Electroluminescence (EL) is the generation of light through the radiative recombination of holes and electrons which have been injected into the material from cathode and anode contacts. The charge carriers are injected into the material due to an applied bias over the cathode and anode. These cathode and anodes are orientated opposite each other.

The different types of spectroscopy can be categorised by either the application it is used for or by type of radiative energy employed. The application of spectroscopic methods in organic (carbon-based) chemistry and organic electronics is known as organic spectroscopy.

In absorption spectroscopy, the intensity of light absorbed by a sample is measured as a function of wavelength. This can provide important information about the electronic structure of an atom or molecule.

You should not be measuring negative absorbance values for any sample. Absorbance measurements come from transmission measurements where light that passes through your sample is collected by the spectrometer (or spectrophotometer) and compared to a reference spectrum.

Photoluminescence is luminescence resulting from photoexcitation. In other words, photoluminescence is when a material emits light following the absorption of energy from incident light from another light source.

BODIPY is an organic fluorophore with impressive fluorescent quantum yield, small stokes shift and impressive chemical and photostability. These are often used in biological labelling and as an organic fluorescent dye.

When done correctly, UV-Vis (or optical) spectroscopy can be a powerful technique which can reveal intricate details about the molecular structure and optical properties of a sample. However, without well prepared samples, the results can be not only challenging to interpret but also potentially deceptive.

Photoluminescence occurs when electrons relax from photoexcited states radiatively. Emissions resulting from singlet-singlet transitions are known as fluorescence. However, there are a number of ways in which electrons in these excited states can relax non-radiatively.

Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence (TADF) is a mechanism by which triplet state electrons can be harvested to generate fluorescence.

Multiple resonance thermally activated delayed fluorescence (MR-TADF) is a light emitting process engaging the same working principle as thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF).

The design of multiple resonance thermally activated delayed fluorescent (MR-TADF) materials requires careful selection of molecular scaffolds and substituents to achieve the desired photophysical properties i.e. color and color purity.

MR-TADF emitters show great application potential in high color purity and high-resolution organic light-emitting diode (OLED) displays, and their long emission lifetimes also make them ideal for use in bioimaging probes, fluorescent sensors, and phototheranostics.

Intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) refers to the transfer of charge within a single molecule (intra = “within” in Latin). In molecules containing one or more electron donor and acceptor groups, ICT can occur if the molecule is in an excited state.

A fluorophore is a chemical compound that is fluorescent, meaning it emits strong glowing colours. There are three key groups of chemical compounds that can fluoresce:

An exciplex (or excited complex) is a complex formed between two different conjugated molecules (monomers), one of which is in an excited state.

Conductivity, resistivity, resistance and sheet resistance are all electrical quantities that describe a material or an electrical component’s opposition to electrical current flow.

This guide explains the theory behind sheet resistance, an electrical property of thin films of materials, and demonstrates how the four-probe method can be used to measure it.

This guide gives an overview of how to use the Ossila Four-Point Probe System, as well as some general tips and tricks for measuring sheet resistance.

A video guide on how to replace the Ossila Four-Point Probe Head.

Slot-die coating is an extremely versatile deposition technique in which a solution is delivered onto a substrate via a narrow slot positioned close to the surface.

Compatible with both roll-to-roll and sheet-to-sheet deposition processes, slot die coating is one of the best techniques available for scalable thin film deposition.

A solar cell is a device that converts light into electricity via the photovoltaic effect.

Humans have been using solar energy for light and heat for hundreds of years. Chinese, Greek, and Roman inventors built structures that tracked the sun to capture light and warmth. Later, concentrated light was applied to ignite fires using curved metallic objects known as 'burning mirrors'. By the 18th century, natural philosophers were trapping solar heat with glass.

The global demand for electricity is continuously increasing. More and more resources are being invested into finding new energy sources rather than relying on our finite fossil fuel supply. One of these sources is sunlight.

One of the factors preventing widespread adoption of solar panels is the limited space for installation, particularly in densely populated areas like cities where land and roof space are scarce. To address this issue, transparent solar panels are being introduced as a potential solution to capture solar energy in more areas.

Solar panels are not able to generate electricity during the night. Solar panels work by absorbing photons of visible light and converting this to electricity. Of course, at night, there is no sunlight for solar panels to absorb.

A common concern amongst home and business owners is whether solar panels can work efficiently in the climate they operate in. Solar panels are more efficient the more sunlight is incident on them.

The rise in popularity of solar panels has resulted in several types of solar panels being developed. Each uses slightly different materials or technology to achieve the same goal: convert the sun’s energy into useable electricity. Of these, monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar panels are by far the most popular choices.

Solar panels harness the free and renewable energy produced by the sun to generate electricity. While they have many advantages, they face a significant drawback: they're unable to produce electricity without sunlight. Consequently, energy production is reduced and reliability suffers at night or during long periods of poor weather.

PTAA and Spiro-OMeTAD are both used as hole transport layers in high efficiency perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Regular architecture devices using PTAA and Spiro-OMeTAD layers have demonstrated power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of over 22% and 25% respectively.

An I-V curve (short for 'current-voltage characteristic curve'), is a graphical representation of the relationship between the voltage applied across an electrical device and the current flowing through it.

Voltammetry is the study of the current response of a chemical under an applied potential difference. Voltammetry encompasses a number of different methods.

Organic photovoltaics (OPVs) have received widespread attention due to promising qualities, such as solution processability, tunable electronic properties, low temperature manufacture, and cheap and light materials.

Due to their high efficiency and well-established manufacture, crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells currently dominate the solar cell market.

Whilst the majority of commercial solar cells are currently made using crystalline silicon (c-Si), thin-film alternatives have the potential to be cheaper, flexible, and more straightforward to produce.

Ossila’s pre-patterned ITO substrates are used for a wide variety of teaching and research devices (both organic and inorganic) where a high-quality ITO surface is required.

Whilst efficiencies of lab-scale organic photovoltaic (OPV) cells have continued to rise in recent years, the majority of systems use aromatic halogenated solvents to dissolve the active layer.

Molecular engineering is simply the design and synthesis of molecules with specific properties and functions in mind. Certain chemical groups and atoms incorporated into molecules results in them having certain characteristics.

Molecular electronics or "moletronics" is to use molecules as building blocks to create electronic components. These molecular electronic components include transistors, diodes, capacitors, insulators, and wires.

PEDOT:PSS is a blend of two distinct polymers: poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) and polystyrene sulfonate (PSS).

PEDOT synthesis involves the oxidative chemical or electrochemical polymerization of EDOT monomer.

PEDOT:PSS has conductivities in the range of 10^-4 - 10³ S cm^-1. PEDOT:PSS is conductive because it contains the conjugated intrinsically conductive polymer (ICP) PEDOT.

PEDOT:PSS work function ranges 4.8 - 5.2 eV for commercially available products.

PEDOT:PSS layers are often used in third generation photovoltaics like organic or perovskite solar cells. It is an attractive material for these applications due to its:

The choice of electrode is very important in many optoelectronic devices. Solar cells, LEDs and photodetectors all need an electrode on either side of the device. These electrodes should meet the following criteria.

When working with air sensitive compounds, it is vital that to protect your materials before removing them from inert atmospheres (like a glove box). One way to do this is to encapsulate your devices before exposing them to ambient conditions.

The rapid improvement of perovskite solar cells has made them the rising star of the photovoltaics world and of huge interest to the academic community.

The discovery of perovskite crystals in the Ural Mountains in the 19th century was followed by the discovery of metal halide perovskites some 50 years later.

Wide bandgap (WBG) perovskites are a subset of perovskite semiconductor materials. These perovskite materials are characterized by a bandgap energy (Eg) >1.7 eV.

Methylammonium lead iodide (MAPbI3) was one of the first perovskite materials used in perovskite solar cells. These crystal structures combine the organic A cation methylammonium (MA+, CH3NH3+) and divalent lead (Pb+) with three iodide anions (I-).

Formamidinum lead iodide (FAPbI3) is a material used for perovskite solar cells. FAPbI3 was introduced in 2014 as an alternative to MAPbI3 (Eperon 2014).

This guide describes our recommended fabrication routine for perovskite solar cells using Ossila I101 Perovskite Precursor Ink which is designed to be used with a bottom ITO/PEDOT:PSS anode and a top PC70BM/Ca/Al cathode.

Instructions for how to fabricating perovskite solar cells with the following architecture: SNO2/perovskite materials/Spiro-OMeTAD (sublimed)/Au Solar Devices

As part of our photovoltaic substrate system, Ossila offers patterned Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) substrates which are designed to work with our evaporation masks to create multi pixel devices.

This article aims to introduce some methods that have been adapted to improve perovskite solar cell stability.

Perovskite solar cells show impressive efficiencies and offer “a different kind of solar cell” that could be cheap to manufacture and could be semi-transparent, lightweight, and flexible.

2D perovskites are perovskite materials with a layered crystal structure. They are made up of metal-halide sheets, separated by large organic cations called spacers.

Perovskite solar cells have demonstrated impressive device metrics, including open-circuit voltages of up to 1.2V. However, in order for PSCs to achieve their theoretical best efficiencies, all non-essential recombination pathways should be eliminated.

A condensed summary of our fabrication routine for standard architecture devices using our I301 Triple Cation Perovskite Precursor Ink. This recipe is based on the one described by Saliba et al (2018).

Our technical support team receive enquiries about perovskite solar cell or photovoltaic fabrication on a regular basis. For your convenience, we've collated some of the most common questions here which you may find helpful when using I101 or I201 perovskite precursor inks.

Self-assembled monolayers (SAM) are well-organised, one molecule thick layers that form on a solid surface. SAM molecules adsorb on a substrate via chemical or physical bonds. They spontaneously organize themselves into ordered structures on the substrate.

Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) are well-organized one molecule thick layers that spontaneously form on a surface. They have a high potential for use in a wide range of applications due to their well-defined structure and properties.

Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) are highly organized single layers of molecules that form on a surface. This is driven by the chemisorption of specific functional groups on the SAM molecules that have a strong affinity for a particular surface.

Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) provide a versatile and cost-effective method for surface modification and the creation of molecular-scale electronic devices. By selecting the appropriate head, spacer and tail group for the SAM molecules the following properties can be adjusted:

Incorporating self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) within perovskite solar cells has improved device efficiency. SAMs exist as ultrathin layers that can be engineered to improve various aspects of the solar cell including charge transport and stability. SAMs have benefits including:

The foundation of technology is the understanding of material systems. Specific material properties are required depending on the application.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been deemed a wonder material due to their remarkable and highly unique physical and chemical properties. They have received much attention over the past decade as a promising material, particularly in the trending field of nanotechnology.

Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) consist of multiple carbon nanotubes nested within one another. The carbon nanotubes are just one atom thick and this gives MWCNTs unique electrical and mechanical properties.

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are sheets of graphene that have been rolled up to form a long hollow tube, with wall thickness of a single atom. Their one-dimensional structure gives them extraordinary mechanical, electrical and thermal properties.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have unique properties such as high conductivity and strength. They have similar properties to another carbon allotrope known as graphene. This is due to the similarity in structure of 2D sheet-like graphene and 1D carbon nanotubes which are essentially cylindrical tubes of rolled up graphene.

There are multiple methods for producing carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and they usually involve gas phase processing. The three key methods are; chemical vapour deposition (CVD), laser ablation and arc discharge.

The two main types of carbon nanotubes are single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT). Scientific research has led to the development of other types of carbon nanotubes with distinct features. Modifications to the chemistry and structure of carbon nanotubes have improved specific properties for various applications.

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) have some similarities and some key differences. Both materials are made from hexagonal lattices of carbon, specifically graphene sheets rolled up to form tubular structures. However, the nested structure of MWCNTs gives them distinct properties that differentiate them from SWCNTs.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), such as single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT), have been tipped as one of the most exciting nanomaterials in the development of battery technology. The key properties of CNTs that make them ideal candidates as battery components is their high electron conductivity, high strength and lightweight nature.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene are two ground-breaking nanomaterials composed entirely of carbon atoms. Both are allotropes of carbon where atoms are bonded in a hexagonal lattice.

Fullerene C60 exhibits unique structural, chemical, electronic, and thermal properties. This is due to its highly symmetrical icosahedral structure that contains a mixture of single and double bonds. All fullerenes have partial electron sharing across the molecule and a high affinity for electrons.

Fullerenes are an allotrope of carbon and are known for their hollow, cage-like structures. They are composed entirely of carbon atoms that form closed, convex polyhedra. The atoms are bonded together to form hexagonal and pentagonal rings, like the pattern found on a soccer ball or geodesic dome.

Today, fullerenes are made using three main methods; Huffman-Krätschmer, combustion and microwave. Chemical synthesis techniques, such as laser irradiation and pyrolysis, offer exciting possibilities for producing fullerene derivatives that were previously not accessible.

Viscoelastic transfer using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) stamps is one of the methods used for the deterministic placement of 2D materials and the fabrication of van der Waals heterostructures.

Fullerene and its derivatives are used in chemical, electronic, medicinal, and biological sciences due to their unique physical and chemical properties. Fullerene, also known as C60 or buckminsterfullerene, is a type of carbon allotrope that has properties that can be tuned depending on what it will be used for.

Water-soluble fullerenes, such as fullerenol C60, are either chemically modified, polymer grafted, or encapsulated in a hydrophillic agent. Fullerenes can then disperse or solubilize in aqueous media.

Polymer-fullerene bulk heterojunction (BHJ) solar cells are based on blends of semiconducting polymers and fullerene derivatives, such as PCBM. It is described as a bulk heterojunction as it involves a blend of two materials with differing energy band gaps, forming a dispersed, interpenetrating network.

Molybdenum disulfide belongs to a class of materials called 'transition metal dichalcogenides'. Materials in this class have the chemical formula MX2, where M is a transition metal atom and X is a chalcogen.

Graphene has many potential electronic, optoelectronic and biological uses. However, graphene itself is non-soluble, and this makes it very difficult to deposit from solution.

Graphene is a hexagonal lattice of carbon atoms that connect to form a single sheet in 2 dimensions.

Graphene oxide (GO) is a two-dimensional material with oxygen-functionalized surfaces, derived from graphite.

Graphene batteries are advanced energy storage devices. Graphene materials are two-dimensional and are typically made solely of carbon.

Graphene is a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal pattern, like a sheet of paper. Graphite, on the other hand, is made up of many layers of graphene stacked on top of each other, like a stack of paper.

Graphene materials have ultrahigh surface area, high strength, and exceptional conductivity making them highly valuable for various applications. Its large surface area enhances energy storage, sensor sensitivity, and water purification efficiency.

Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) has a layered structure. In a layer of h-BN, each boron atom is covalently bonded to three nitrogen atoms and vice versa.

The properties of bulk hexagonal boron nitride crystals differ from that of the monolayer material. The bulk exists as layered hexagonal lattice material similar to graphite.

Tungsten disulfide (WS₂) exits in different forms, each with their own beneficial properties. Bulk WS₂ offers advantages such as exceptional lubricity and high thermal stability.

Typically, batteries work by a process known as intercalation. This process occurs across the battery components. Most batteries consist of the same components.

Lithium-ion batteries use the reversible lithium intercalation reaction. The battery has several important components to enable this intercalation.

Defining a cathode and anode as positive and negative, or as the source and sink of a current, depends on your definition of current itself. Current can describe the flow of positive or negative charge.

This page discusses the pros and cons of Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries and graphene batteries and the future outlook for battery research.

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries can catch fire due to a process known as thermal runaway, which is triggered by various factors and involves a series of heat-releasing reactions. While Li-ion batteries are widely used in laptops, cameras, and electric vehicles (EVs) such as scooters and cars, their rise in popularity has not been without issues. In the UK alone, fire services responded to 921 lithium-ion battery fires in 2023, a 46% increase from the previous year.

C-rate refers to the rate at which a battery charges or discharges relative to its maximum capacity. In other words, the speed at which delithiation and lithiation occurs in a lithium-ion battery. The higher the C-rate the faster charging or discharging occurs.

This guide describes the fabrication of evaporation-free OFETs using the Ossila pre-patterned ITO OFET substrates (product codes S161 & S162).

This guide gives you an overview of what to consider when characterising an OLED, as well as tips for their measurement.

A source measure unit (also known as a source meter or SMU) is a tool that can power your electronics and measure their performance at the same time.

Using an integrated Source Measure Unit (also known as SMU or source meter) offers numerous advantages over assembling separate components. This article highlights the benefits of using an SMU, including speed, synchronization, programmability, cost-effectiveness, the ability to handle negative voltages, and its superiority over traditional multimeters and power supplies.

Source measure units (also known as source meters or SMUs) are versatile tools widely used in electronic testing and characterization. This article explores the practical applications of SMUs.

The Ossila Source Measure Unit is designed to test and measure small devices/films which operate between 10V to -10V, and can measure currents up to 200 mA. Potential applications include solar cell characterization, OLED testing, measuring certain battery properties, FET characterization and much more.

Source measure units are vital pieces of equipment used for many applications, including the measurement of new solar cells. A small-scale test device is usually used to characterize the solar cell efficiency.

Learn how to conduct various SMU measurements such as solar cell I-V curves, external voltage tracking, and basic quick measurements.

Current-voltage measurements (I-V curves) are the primary measurement for characterizing solar cells.

The Ossila Source Measure Unit can be controlled directly over USB or Ethernet using various commands. These can be sent as strings, enabling the use of a large variety of programming languages, including Python, MATLAB, LabVIEW, Java, and C/C++.

The Xtralien Scientific Python distribution is a development environment aimed at scientists and includes all the relevant tools and libraries that a scientist will need to get started.

The X100 (now discontinued, see X200 Source Measure Unit instead) is a powerful and versatile device. The tutorials and demos on this page are intended to help get you started with the X100 and make device characterisation as easy as possible.

The acronym ‘OLED’ stands for Organic Light-Emitting Diode - a technology that uses LEDs in which the light is produced by organic molecules. These organic LEDs are used to create what are considered to be the world’s best display panels.

Phosphorescent organic light-emitting diodes (PhOLEDs) are a type of OLED technology that emits light using a process called phosphorescence. They’ve become popular because they’re much more energy-efficient than earlier versions of OLEDs.

Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) technology spans over a thirty-year history. It touches our everyday lives through our reliance on devices like smartphones.

Traditional LEDs use inorganic light producing materials, whereas OLEDs use organic molecules. With different materials come different advantages.

As the commercial popularity of OLEDs increased, their advantages over the traditional LED-powered displays became clear.

Advanced features, material availability, fabrication issues, and the blue pixel problem are among some of the factors that keep the price of OLED technologies so high.

Researchers and consumers are both very interested in how long OLEDs last. Issues like black spots, burn-in, and pixel failure still affect OLED devices.

TOLEDs only contain transparent layers, unlike standard OLEDs which include some opaque layers. The transparent layers allow light to pass through the device from all angles but also render parts of the window or display panel opaque when in use.

In PhOLEDs, charge carriers are injected from the electrodes into the organic layers, where they recombine in the emissive layer to radiatively emit phosphorescence. Find out more.

An organic light emitting diode is a type of light emitting diode (LED) which using organic materials as the emissive layer. LEDs convert electrical energy into light energy via electroluminescence, and they do this very efficiently. By varying the type of organic materials used, you can easily vary the colour of emitted light and efficently optimize the efficiency and stability of your LED device.

A tandem OLED (organic light emitting diode), also known as a stacked OLED, is a type of screen technology that makes displays brighter and last longer.

Hyperfluorescence organic light-emitting diodes (HF-OLEDs) represent the 4th generation of OLED technology. Find out more.

In PhOLEDs, charge carriers are injected from the electrodes into the organic layers, where they recombine in the emissive layer to radiatively emit phosphorescence. Find out more.

Unlike many other electrochemical techniques, which are limited to the diffusion layer, bulk electrolysis (sometimes referred to just ‘electrolysis’) changes the composition of the bulk solution. Bulk electrolysis experiments aim to generate a quantitative conversion such that the amount of substrate consumed is directly proportional to the total consumed charge.

Spectroelectrochemistry (SEC) is an experimental technique that combines electrochemistry and spectroscopy. While electrochemical experiments provide information on macroscopic properties like reaction rates, spectroscopic techniques give information on a molecular level, such as the structure of molecules and their electronic configuration.

Ossila's photovoltaic substrates have been developed to maximise performance and fabrication efficiency for a range of modern photovoltaic device types where ITO series resistance becomes critical.

The schematics below show the layout of the substrates along with the available deposition shadow masks. The pixelated anode substrates come with six ITO fingers which define the pixels plus an additional cathode bus-bar.

The Long Channel Organic Field-Effect Transistor (OFET) source/drain evaporation stack is designed to make fabrication as simple as possible so you can focus on material testing rather than fabrication.

Organic photovoltaic cells (OPVs) or organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) can be easily manufactured using Ossila’s pre-patterned ITO substrates and a few simple spin coating and evaporating steps.

This video is a guide on how to make perovskite films when processed inside a nitrogen filled glove box. The resultant devices achieve efficiencies greater than 19% PCE.

This video provides a walk through guide on how to clean substrates for photovoltaic and OLED fabrication.

This video provides a guide to making efficient air-processed perovskite devices.

This video details the effects humidity has on air-processed perovskite films.

While a large part of research into the bulk heterojunction morphology of organic solar cells focuses on component choice,1 the morphology is also tuned by a host of processing conditions.

Of the significant efforts in research devoted to NFAs, the proposal of the fused-ring system ‘ITIC’ in 2015 has generated the most success.

Non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs) are organic molecules that, like fullerenes, act as electron acceptors in organic solar cells and other organic electronic devices. However, unlike fullerenes, NFAs lack the hollow cage structure and offer greater flexibility in molecular design, allowing for tunable electronic and optical properties.

Non-fullerene acceptor (NFA) molecules are currently being used in the active layer of organic solar cells to enhance their efficiency. Organic solar cells, also known as organic photovoltaics (OPVs), consist of several organic components, each playing a distinct role in capturing solar energy.

An n-type semiconductor is a type of semiconductor where electrons serve as the majority charge carriers, leading to a negative charge transport characteristic. These electron-donating properties make n-type semiconductors suitable for electrical applications, particularly in transistors, LEDs, solar cells and electrodes. The two main types of n-type semiconducting materials are:

In photovoltaics, researchers are constantly seeking better materials for organic solar cells (OPV). One standout example is Y6, a non-fullerene acceptor (NFA) that is an n-type organic semiconductor. Y6 is commonly paired with a polymer donor in bulk heterojunction solar cells.

Typically, polymer-based organic semiconductors (OSCs) are associated with OPVs. However, small molecules are also showing significant promise in terms of NFAs,2–4 and have similarly tunable properties (such as band-gap width).

Fullerene and non-fullerene acceptors play a pivotal role in organic photovoltaics (OPVs). OPVs are promising candidates for next-generation solar cells due to their lightweight, flexibility, and potential for low-cost production.

Typically, organic photovoltaics (OPVs) are manufactured in the form of a bulk heterojunction (BHJ) cell, where the active layer consists of a blend of donor and acceptor materials with various interfacial layers and electrodes.

The majority of organic photovoltaics (OPVs) in research are based upon a binary active-layer mixture (of donor and acceptor materials) in the form of a bulk heterojunction (BHJ).

"Layer-by-layer" (LbL) processing, also known as "layer-by-layer" deposition, is a technique used for the fabrication of photovoltaic solar cells, in particular organic solar cells. This method involves the sequential addition of ultra-thin layers of materials to build up the device's structure.

The new Ossila Potentiostat has been designed to help electrochemists perform cyclic voltammetry for less. The complete system includes cyclic voltammetry software, an electrochemical cell, and everything you need to start taking measurements.

Synthesising high quality quantum dots (QDs) can be a complex process. Two major routes to the synthesis have now been developed: room temperate synthesis and synthesis by hot injection.

Over the last two decades, quantum dots have elicited a considerable amount of excitement and attention from both research scientists and the media. When Sony launched their XBR line of televisions in 2013, quantum dots successfully moved from pure research into the commercial sphere. Despite this, there are still some barriers to overcome before we can expect to see widespread adoption of quantum dot-based products.

A well-designed and correctly chosen chuck provides stability and balance during the spin coating process. It needs to be able to withstand the rotational forces of a spin coater and also to maintain the substrate firmly in place.

By following these instructions, you can easily manage the spin coater substrate chucks and achieve better film quality with the polypropylene chucks' recessed design.

The Ossila Contact Angle Goniometer provides a fast, reliable, and easy method to measure the contact angle or surface tension of a droplet.

Ossila's Dip Coater is a system designed to deposit thin wet films through the controlled immersion and withdrawal of a substrate from a reservoir of solution.

The Ossila Four-Point Probe System is a low-cost solution for rapid and reliable measurement of the sheet resistance, resistivity and conductivity of materials.

Ossila's inert atmosphere Glove Box comes equipped with high accuracy oxygen and humidity sensors, quick purge function and antechamber for quick item transfer.

The Ossila LED Measurement System is a low-cost solution for reliable current-voltage-luminance and lifetime measurements of light emitting diodes.

Ossila's USB powered Optical Spectrometer has been designed to simplify the optical characterisation of thin films, solutions, nanocrystals and more.

Ossila’s Potentiostat is low-cost and easy-to-use system for performing cyclic voltammetry measurements. Cyclic voltammetry is one of the most widely used electrochemical techniques, providing important information about materials.

The Ossila Slot-Die Coater has been designed for simple operation and easy maintenance. An integrated high-precision Syringe Pump allows for accurate flow rates.

The Ossila Solar Cell I-V Test System is a low-cost solution for reliable current-voltage characterisation of photovoltaic devices.

The vacuum-free Ossila Spin Coater is compact and portable to optimise space in the glove box and produce high-quality coatings without substrate warping.

Ossila's Syringe Pump has been designed to move volumes of fluids accurately and repeatedly at specified rates. User manual for single and dual models.

Ossila's Source Measure Unit (SMU) can measure a wide range of research devices including photovoltaics, LEDs and OLEDs, transistors, and more.

Ossila's UV Ozone Cleaner is designed to provide a simple, inexpensive, and efficient method of obtaining ultra-clean surfaces free of organic contaminants.

The latest software and drivers including our cyclic voltammetry software for the Ossila Potentiostat and more.